Home Inspection Services

"High-tech" toilets

Advanced technology is being integrated into toilets with more functions, especially in Japan (see Toilets in Japan). The biggest maker of these toilets is TOTO. Such toilets can cost anywhere from US$200 to $5,000. The features are operated by control pads (sometimes with bilingual labels), and even hand-held remote control devices. Some of these features are

• Automatic-flushing mechanisms, operated by a photocell or other sensor. Typically these flush a toilet when the user stands up, or flush a urinal when the user steps away.
• Water jets, or "bottom washers" like a bidet, as an alternative to toilet paper
• The "Portable Washlet", Toto's portable hand-held bottom washer
• Blow dryers, to dry the body after use of water jets
• Artificial flush sounds, to mask noises such as body functions
• Urine and stool analysis, for medical monitoring. Matsushita's "Smart Toilet" checks blood pressure, temperature, and blood sugar.
• Digital clock, to monitor time spent at the toilet
• Automatic lid operation, to open and close the lid
• Heated seats (some of which may overheat)
• Deodorizing fans
• Automated paper toilet-seat-cover replacers, which automatically replace a paper toilet-seat cover with the push of a button.
• Electric Toilet Brushes
• Invented in Australia in 1980, and available in more than thirty countries, are dual flush toilets, also known as duosets. Two buttons allow for the user to select between a flush for urine or feces. Because the density of urine is nearly equal to that of the water around it, it requires far less water to flush into a home's sewage system. Because most of a households' flushes are for urine, dual flush toilets can save a significant amount of water.

Shallow foundations are usually embedded a meter or so into soil. One common type is the spread footing which consists of strips or pads of concrete (or other materials) which extend below the frost line and transfer the weight from walls and columns to the soil or bedrock. Another common type is the slab-on-grade foundation where the weight of the building is transferred to the soil through a concrete slab placed at the surface.

Deep foundations are used to transfer a load from a structure through an upper weak layer of soil to a stronger deeper layer of soil. There are different types of deep foundations including helical piles, impact driven piles, drilled shafts, caissons, piers, and earth stabilized columns. The naming conventions for different types of foundations vary between different engineers. Historically, piles were wood, later steel, reinforced concrete, and pre-tensioned concrete.

Earthquake-protective foundation, also known as seismic or base isolation system, is a collection of structural elements which should substantially decouple a superstructure from its substructure resting on a shaking ground thus protecting a building or non-building structure's integrity. It is believed to be the most powerful tool of the earthquake engineering pertaining to the passive structural vibration control technologies.

Foundations are designed to have an adequate load capacity with limited settlement by a geotechnical engineer, and the foundation itself is designed structurally by a structural engineer.

The primary design concerns are settlement and bearing capacity. When considering settlement, total settlement and differential settlement is normally considered. Differential settlement is when one part of a foundation settles more than another part. This can cause problems to the structure the foundation is supporting. It is necessary that a foundation is not loaded beyond its bearing capacity or the foundation will "fail".

Other design considerations include scour and frost heave. Scour is when flowing water removes supporting soil from around a foundation (like a pier supporting a bridge over a river). Frost heave occurs when water in the ground freezes to form ice lenses.

Changes in soil moisture can cause expansive clay to swell and shrink. This swelling can vary across the footing due to seasonal changes or the effects of vegetation removing moisture. The variation in swell can cause the soil to distort, cracking the structure over it. This is a particular problem for house footings in semi-arid climates such as Southwestern US where wet winters are followed by hot dry summers. Raft slabs with inherent stiffness have been developed in Australia with capabilities to resist this movement.

When structures are built in areas of permafrost, special consideration must be given to the thermal effect the structure will have on the permafrost. Generally, the structure is designed in a way that tries to prevent the permafrost from melting.

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A chimney is a structure for venting hot flue gases or smoke from a boiler, stove, furnace or fireplace to the outside atmosphere. Chimneys are typically vertical, or as near as possible to vertical, to ensure that the gases flow smoothly, drawing air into the combustion in what is known as the stack effect. The space inside a chimney is called a flue. Chimneys may be found in buildings, steam locomotives and ships. In the US, the term smokestack is also used when referring to locomotive chimneys. The term funnel is generally used for ships' chimneys and sometimes to refer to locomotive chimneys. Chimneys are tall to increase their draw of air for combustion and to disperse pollutants in the flue gases over a greater area so as to reduce the pollutant concentrations in compliance with regulatory or other limits. Chimney caps, flue, bricks dampers, clean outs, screen and, spark-aresters are all part of a good inspection. However if you can not see down the entire flue and the owner has no documentation of a sweep in the past year, it would be best to request a level two video inspection.


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International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO) to govern the installation and inspection of plumbing systems associated with swimming Pools, spas and hot tubs as a means of promoting the public's health, safety and welfare.

The advantages of a Uniform Swimming Pool, Spa and Hot Tub Code, acceptable in various jurisdictions, had long been recognized, prompting IAPMO to pass a resolution at its 1975 annual business conference that directed the president to form a committee to develop a basic swimming pool, spa and hot tub document.

After months of concerted endeavor, this committee, composed of representatives from industry and public utility companies, inspectors, plumbers and engineers, successfully completed the first edition of the Uniform Swimming Pool, Spa and Hot Tub Code, which was officially adopted by IAPMO in September 1976.

If you need a copy of the 2006 IAPMO code book click here

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The 2009 Uniform Plumbing Code is supported by the American Society of Sanitary Engineering (ASSE), the Mechanical Contractors Association of America (MCAA), the Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors National Association (PHCC-NA), the United Association (UA) and the World Plumbing Council (WPC). These associations support IAPMO’s open consensus process being used to develop IAPMO’s codes and standards. Some heavy hitters step into the code process. This will surly add many new codes to the UPC.

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In 1926, a group of Los Angeles plumbing inspectors recognized that there were no uniform requirements for the installation and maintenance of plumbing systems, and at that point in time disease was rampant, a lot of it spread through improper sanitation. Disorder in the industry was the result of widely divergent plumbing practices and the use of many different, often conflicting, plumbing codes by local jurisdictions.

It was these plumbing inspectors that understood the necessity of developing a model code that could be uniformly applied across jurisdictions.

In 1928, the city adopted the first incarnation of a uniform plumbing code developed by the Los Angeles City Plumbing Inspectors Association (LACPIA) and based on the input from a committee of plumbing inspectors, master and journeyman plumbers, and sanitary and mechanical engineers, assisted by public utility companies and the plumbing industry.

The product of this effort, the first edition of the Uniform Plumbing Code (UPC) was officially adopted by the Western Plumbing Officials Association in 1945, which later changed its name to IAPMO in 1966 when the scope of the association’s work increased. The widespread use of this code over the past five decades by jurisdictions throughout the United States and internationally is testament to its merit.

With the publication of the 2003 Edition of the Uniform Plumbing Code, another significant milestone was reached. For the first time in the history of the United States, a plumbing code was developed through a true consensus process. The 2009 edition represents the most current approaches in the plumbing field and is the third edition developed under the ANSI consensus process. Contributions to the content of the code were made by every segment of the built industry, including such diverse interests as consumers, enforcing authorities, installers/maintainers, insurance, labor, manufacturers, research/standards/testing laboratories, special experts and users.

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Designated as an American National Standard, the Uniform Plumbing Code (UPC) is a model code developed by the International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO) to govern the installation and inspection of plumbing systems as a means of promoting the public's health, safety and welfare.

The UPC is developed using the American National Standard Institute's consensus development procedures. This process brings together volunteers representing a variety of viewpoints and interests to achieve consensus on plumbing practices.

The UPC is designed to provide consumers with safe and sanitary plumbing systems while, at the same time, allowing latitude for innovation and new technologies. The public at large is encouraged and invited to participate in IAPMO’s open consensus code development process. This code is updated every three years. A code development timeline and other relevant information are available at IAPMO’s Websit

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Pools present a significant risk of infant and toddler death due to drowning. In regions where residential pools are common, drowning is a major cause of childhood fatalities. Therefore it is advisable to closely watch small children around swimming pools, especially private pools that do not have professional lifeguards. Adults are more likely to be aware of risks, but it is still a good idea to have more than one person around when using a private pool. As a precaution, many municipalities have by-laws that require that residential pools be enclosed with fencing to restrict unauthorized access. As a home inspector it is vital to inspect this part of the pool or spa system just as you would with the electrical and plumbing systems. Check the height, gates, locks, closer and some may require bonding.


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Articles 210 addresses "branch circuits" (as opposed to service or feeder circuits) and receptacles and fixtures on branch circuits. There are requirements for the minimum number of branches, and placement of receptacles, according to the location and purpose of the receptacle outlet. A ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) is required for all receptacles in wet locations, eg: outlets in bathrooms, outdoors and kitchens, and, in addition, for dwelling units: crawl-spaces, garages, boathouses, unfinished basements, and within 6 feet (1.8 m) of a wet-bar sink, with limited exceptions. See NEC for details. The NEC also has rules about such things as how many circuits and receptacles/outlets should be placed in a given residential dwelling, and how far apart they can be in a given type of room, based upon the typical cord-length of small appliances (for example, not more than 12 feet apart, or 4 feet apart on kitchen countertops).

As of 1962 the NEC required that new 120-volt household receptacle outlets, for general purpose use, be both grounded and polarized. NEMA has implemented this in its U.S. standard socket configurations so that:

• There must be a slot for a center-line, rounded pin connected to a common grounding conductor.
• The two blade-shaped slots must be of differing sizes, to prevent ungrounded (2-wire) devices which use "neutral" as their only grounding from being misconnected.

The NEC also has provisions that permit the use of grounding-type receptacles in nongrounded wiring (for example, the retrofit of 2-wire circuits) if a GFCI is used for protection of the new outlet (either itself or "downstream" from a GFCI). Art. 406.3(D)(3).

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Because most conduit and cabinets are made from metal, it is common for these components to have sharp metal edges due to the manufacturing processes. The NEC specifies a number of protective measures to help protect wire insulation from being cut or damaged by these edges both during installation and later when in actual use. Insulated cables may not be inserted directly through knockouts, for example, due to the sharp edge around nearly all knockout holes. Clamping and other wire protection is often not required for plastic conduit parts, since the plastic is not likely to damage insulation in contact with it.

In potentially hazardous locations, more robust cable protection may be necessary. Common conduit and ductwork protects against direct physical abuse, but is neither airtight nor watertight. In wet locations, conduit may resemble standard threaded pipe in appearance, with sealed gasketed box openings to keep moisture out. Areas with potentially explosive gases need further protection to prevent electrical sparks from igniting the gases, and internal conduit gas-tight barriers to prevent potentially ignited gases from traveling inside the conduit to other parts of the building.

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Unlike traditional circuit breakers and fuses, which only open the circuit when the "hot" current exceeds a fixed value for a fixed time, a GFCI device will interrupt electrical service when more than 4 to 6 milliamperes of current in either conductor is leaked to ground (either directly or through a resistance, such as a person). A GFCI detects an imbalance between the current in the "hot" side and the current in the "neutral" side. Most receptacle outlets with GFCI have the added advantage of protecting other receptacles 'downstream' of them, so that one GFCI receptacle can serve as protection for several conventional receptacles, whether or not they are grounding-type receptacles. GFCI devices come in many configurations including circuit-breakers, portable devices and receptacles.

A GFCI receptacle typically has a pair of small push buttons between its two receptacles: one labeled 'test' and the other 'reset' (or T and R). Pressing 'test' will place a small imbalance in the line sensor, which will trip the device, resulting in an audible "snap". Pressing 'reset' will allow the socket to function normally after a test, or after a faulty appliance has been removed from the circuit or insulated from ground. If a GFCI receptacle fails to trip when the test button is pushed (and the GFCI had been previously armed by first pressing in the reset button), it means the GFCI receptacle must be replaced because it is no longer providing protection against ground faults.

Like fuses and circuit breakers, a GFCI receptacle has a finite number of uses. It must be replaced when a test fails to trip the device.

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In a so-called Clean or technical power system, an isolation transformer with a center tap is used to create a separate supply with conductors at a balanced 60 volts with respect to ground. Unlike a three-wire distribution system, the grounded neutral is not distributed to the loads; only line-to-line connections at 120 volts are used. A balanced power system is only used for specialized distribution in audio and video production studios, sound and television broadcasting, and installations of sensitive scientific instruments. The purpose of a balanced power system is to minimize the noise coupled into sensitive equipment from the power supply. In the United States the National Electrical Code provides rules for such installations.
Clean Technical power systems are not to be used for general-purpose lighting or other equipment, and may use special sockets to ensure only approved equipment is connected to the system.

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The 1999 Code required that new 240-volt receptacles be grounded also, which necessitates a fourth slot in their faces. U.S. 240 centertapped single phase has two of these slots being 'hot', with the neutral being the center tap. There is only one standard for these circuits, but 240 V receptacles come in two incompatible varieties. In one the 'neutral' slot accepts a flat blade-prong. In the other the neutral slot accepts a blade with a right angle bend. These are officially NEMA types 14-50R (commonly used with number 8 wire for electric ranges) and 14-30R (commonly used with number 10 wire for electric clothes dryers), respectively, and differ only in current rating (50 A versus 30 A); previous installations would have used the 10-30 or 10-50 configuration.

These changes in standards often cause problems for people living in older buildings.

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It's a good thing to get registered with the NFPA.
You can get free restricted access to the 2008 national electrical code.
This is a valuable tool when you are on site and need to reference a code violation.
DHI is a member of the NFPA.

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Temperature rating

The temperature rating of a wire or cable is generally the maximum safe ambient temperature that the wire can carry full-load power without the cable insulation either melting, oxidizing, or self-igniting. A full-load wire does heat up slightly due to the metallic resistance to the current, but this wire heating is factored into the cable's temperature rating. (NEC 310.10)

The NEC specifies acceptable numbers of conductors in crowded areas such as inside conduit, referred to as the fill rating. If the accepted fill rating is exceeded then all the cables in the conduit are derated, lowering their acceptable maximum ambient operating temperature. This is necessary because when multiple conductors are carrying full-load power, there is a combined heating of all the cables that may exceed the normal insulation temperature rating. (NEC 310.16)

In construction situations where future expansion is highly likely to occur, it is sometimes economical to install a slightly larger diameter conduit than is necessary for the initial building construction. Larger conduit costs more money, but has a greater fill rating than smaller conduit, so that in the future no additional conduit installations may be required in order to add additional circuits while maintaining the conduit's overall temperature rating.

In certain special situations the temperature rating can be higher than normal, such as for knob and tube wiring where two or more load-carrying wires are never likely to be in close proximity. The single lone load wires suspended in midair in knob and tube wiring will have a greater heat-dissipation rate than the standard 3-wire NM-2 cable which includes two tightly bundled load and return wires.

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Actual vs maximum current rating

Nominal Rated Circuit Capacity	Continuous Rated Circuit Capacity
5 amps	4 amps
10 amps	8 amps
15 amps	12 amps
20 amps	16 amps
30 amps	24 amps
50 amps	40 amps
100 amps	80 amps
200 amps	160 amps

Most commonly available circuit breakers are rated to carry no more than 80% of their nominal rating continuously (3 hours or more) (NEC Art. 100). 100%-rated circuit breakers are manufactured for and may carry 100% of their nominal rating continuously.

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Conduit and cable protection

In home construction, wiring is commonly allowed to be installed directly in walls without further protection. However in commercial and industrial buildings, wire needs to be better protected from damage, and so it is more commonly installed inside conduit or ductwork made of metal, plastic, or passageways cast in concrete.

While some types of wiring are available already inside a protective flexible spiraled metal shell, it is more common for conduit and ductwork to be installed empty and the wire added later by threading it through the finished passageways. The NEC spends considerable time documenting safe methods of installing cable in conduit, with the primary concerns being the friction and abrading of insulation due to pulling, damage to the wires or insulation due to sharp bending and kinking, and damage due to too much pulling strain on the cable.

A wire pulled with excessive force may break inside the conduit, requiring costly removal and replacement of the damaged wire. However, a wire pulled with just enough force to stretch the wire but not break it creates a fire and future-failure hazard. The stretched wire section will have a thinner conductive cross-section than other parts of the cable, causing the stretched wire to heat more rapidly due to lower current-carrying capacity. The stretched wire insulation also becomes thinner, reducing the voltage needed to penetrate the insulation. Breaks may also form in the stretched insulation, which may not immediately be discovered until the circuit is powered and damage from arcing or shorting has occurred.

Because most conduit and cabinets are made from metal, it is common for these components to have sharp metal edges due to the manufacturing processes. The NEC specifies a number of protective measures to help protect wire insulation from being cut or damaged by these edges both during installation and later when in actual use. Insulated cables may not be inserted directly through knockouts, for example, due to the sharp edge around nearly all knockout holes. Clamping and other wire protection is often not required for plastic conduit parts, since the plastic is not likely to damage insulation in contact with it.

In potentially hazardous locations, more robust cable protection may be necessary. Common conduit and ductwork protects against direct physical abuse, but is neither airtight nor watertight. In wet locations, conduit may resemble standard threaded pipe in appearance, with sealed gasketed box openings to keep moisture out. Areas with potentially explosive gases need further protection to prevent electrical sparks from igniting the gases, and internal conduit gas-tight barriers to prevent potentially ignited gases from traveling inside the conduit to other parts of the building.

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The NEC is available as a bound book containing approximately 1000 pages. It has been available in electronic form since the 1993 edition. The code is updated every three years. However, some jurisdictions do not immediately adopt the new edition.

The NEC is also available as a restricted, digitized coding model that can be read online free of charge on certain computing platforms. An external link to this online access is referenced at the end of this article.

In the United States, statutory law cannot be copyrighted and is freely accessible and copyable by anyone.

When a standards organization develops a new coding model and it is not yet accepted by any jurisdiction as law, it is still the private property of the standards organization and the reader may be restricted from downloading or printing the text for offline viewing. For that privilege, the coding model must still be purchased as either printed media or a CD-ROM.

Here is a link to California adopted codes.

http://bulk.resource.org/codes.gov/ca.local/